Cortical localisation is a dominant paradigm in neuroscience (Zilles and Amunts 2010). That different regions of the brain could serve different functions dates to antiquity (it was mentioned in the Edwin Smith Papyrus dating from 3000BC; see Finger 1994). Hippocrates believed the brain to be the seat of intelligence and madness (based on the work of Alcmaeon), but Aristotle believed that the heart was the seat of rationality, the brain serving to cool the blood. The role of the brain in sensation, rationality and action was ultimately accepted from the work of Galen (because human dissection was forbidden, many of his dissections were done on animals, principally pigs, oxen and Barbary apes; Lanska 2015). The termination of the senses in the brain led Galen to consider that the brain was the seat of rationality, the ventricles being the site of psychic pneuma (Rocca 1997) that caused behaviour. Despite claims by Erasistratos in the third century BC that human intelligence reflected the increased convolutions of the human brain, the Galenic view minimised the role of the cortex (Gross 1987).
The neuron doctrine and chemical transmission are dominant neuroscience paradigms that developed from a pre-paradigm state rather than reflecting paradigm shifts. These are arguably paradigms for some: single cells and the communication between them are important to physiologists, developmental neurobiologists, and molecular neurobiologists, but less important to psychologists who do not typically refer to single neurons (just as biophysicists seldom refer to behaviour). The Golgi stain is acknowledged as crucial for the foundation of the neuron doctrine, and intracellular recordings for chemical synaptic transmission. These may thus offer evidence of techniques driving neuroscience paradigms.
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Animal electricity and cerebral localisation match the features of Kuhnian scientific revolutions: growing anomalies in the previous paradigms were initially ignored or resisted, but were emphasised by an alternative view that ultimately triggered a paradigm shift. In none of the neuroscience paradigms discussed here can tool development be claimed as the direct cause of the shift. The animal electricity paradigm needed techniques, but these techniques were developed and used to address questions of normal science once the animal electricity paradigm was accepted. Cortical localisation did not involve any new technique, but reflected a complex mix of anomalies in the previous paradigm and non-scientific influences. The neuron doctrine and chemical transmission developed from pre-paradigm states (reticular vs. neuronal doctrines, and electrical vs. chemical transmission, respectively). New tools were needed, as they were for adult neurogenesis, but in all cases the tools were used to support both sides of the debate and thus cannot claim a key role. None of the paradigms discussed here, which cover a wide range of neuroscience, support the contention that tool development is the key to understanding revolutions in neuroscience.
Neuroscience Online is an open-access electronic resource for students, faculty, and those interested in neuroscience. The project began in 1999 and the first section, Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, was released in 2007. 2ff7e9595c
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